Charlotte Brontë’s French in ‘L’Ingratitude’

Sue Lonoff, translator and editor of Charlotte and Emily Brontë’s Belgian essays, writes about the level of French displayed by Charlotte in her essay ‘L’Ingratitude’, written shortly after her arrival in Brussels and recently discovered in a Belgian museum by Brussels-based archivist Brian Bracken.

How good was Charlotte Brontë’s French in ‘L’Ingratitude’? As we know, it is a very early devoir, written a month and a day after Charlotte and Emily arrived at the Pensionnat Heger. In this text of fifty-eight lines, Brian Bracken has identified fourteen errors. However, eight of the fourteen are the same error: Charlotte used the imperfect tense rather than the passé simple. For example, she wrote ‘mangeait’, ‘he was eating’ rather than ‘mangea’, ‘he ate’. She made one mistake in gender (‘un’ rather than ‘une’ odeur) and one in pronoun case (‘le faisait’ rather than ‘lui faisait). She hyphenated a word incorrectly; she forgot to make ‘grand’ plural before ‘seigneurs’; she put an adjective before instead of after its noun; and she used one plural verb rather than a singular. Errors of this kind are commonly made by English people writing in French. Still, ‘L’Ingratitude’ shows that Charlotte came to Brussels with a fairly solid grammar base and an extensive vocabulary. Her French was not yet supple. ‘L’Ingratitude’ is stiffer than the essays she would write subsequently. Its punctuation is also erratic, but that is an issue in all of her writing, English or French. Nevertheless, she shows her teacher that she can write with imagination and charm

Sue Lonoff

Link to article in London Review of Books with text of the essay in French and English (you can also listen to a podcast of Gillian Anderson reading the tale):
http://www.lrb.co.uk/v34/n05/charlotte-bronte/lingratitude

Lost Brontë manuscript discovered in Belgian museum by member of Brussels Brontë Group

Some months ago Brian Bracken discovered a ‘lost’ Brontë manuscript, which is now published in the renowned London Review of Books. It is the first devoir written by Charlotte at the Pensionnat Heger, on 16 March 1842. The little story is a sort of fable about a young rat, entitled L’Ingratitude.

The manuscript was found in the Musée Royal de Mariemont, near Charleroi, along with some other Brontë related papers. In 1915 Paul Heger had given them to Raoul Warocqué, a wealthy collector. He also managed to acquire letters from, for instance, Rembrandt, Mozart and Erasmus.

For many decades these papers were accessible to anyone, but it was a fairly coincidental finding by Brian that led to this great discovery.

Special thanks go to Sue Lonoff, the expert on the Brussels devoirs, who also provided the translation of the manuscript.

The article will be available on the website of the London Review of Books. The paper version, dated 8 March, will be available this Thursday, 1 March.

The Guardian has already published an article about the discovery, on 28 February.

Presentations by Brussels Brontë Group members: a new departure for the group

11 February 2012 marked a new departure for our group, a do-it-yourself event at which rather than inviting a specialist speaker, members themselves gave presentations on topics of their choice. Only one of the four speakers had previous experience of talks on literary subjects, though their confident delivery suggested that they were no strangers to powerpoint presentations. Both their nationalities (Irish, Portuguese, Belgian and American) and work backgrounds (transport expert, communications manager, interpreter cum teacher, journalist) are representative of the diversity of Brussels Brontë Group members.

Perhaps the most unusual topic chosen was Alex’s: literary blogs and the activities of the blogging “community”. Literary societies such as the Brontë Society continue to organise more traditional activities where you sit in a hall with other members face to face with speakers. Perhaps the more time we spend in virtual worlds the more important it becomes to have forums for real-life interaction with other enthusiasts. But Alex’s case shows how literary interests can be pursued in parallel in the real and virtual worlds. Her blogging brings her into contact with a potentially unlimited online community. But the blogs encourage an activity less dependent on modern technology - reading books! She also belongs to several Brussels reading groups where members meet face to face, as well as attending physical gatherings of literary bloggers from all over the world.

Below are some impressions of the event from Marina Sagerman, Sharon Rowles and Dave Richards.

Marina writes: On a general note, I found it fascinating to see and hear how passionate Brussels Brontë Group members can be when talking about something they are enthusiastic about. It certainly inspires others to come forward and do the same. I think it is a wonderful idea to have this opportunity to hear from other BBG members about their personal Brontë-related “passions”. How about having a talk on Branwell on a future occasion?

Monica Wallace’s presentation on the life and work of writer Maria Edgeworth

Sharon writes: Monica Wallace introduced us to Maria Edgeworth, an Anglo- Irish writer who wrote for children and adults in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Born in Berkshire, Maria’s family moved to Edgeworthstown, Ireland in 1782 where she helped her father to run the family estate. She drew on her daily experiences for inspiration for her stories, which tended to be moralistic in tone. Her novel Castle Rackrent, about the vagaries of Anglo-Irish landlords, was an instant success, She was much admired by writers such as Austen and Scott and became the leading female author of her time.

Elements in Castle Rackrent such as the themes of property and inheritance, and the use of an unreliable narrator, are similar to those in Wuthering Heights. It is highly likely that her books were known to the Brontës and may have influenced their writing. Alas, her work did not endure as well as theirs, as it had fallen out of popularity by the 20th century.

Marina writes: I became interested in this Anglo-Irish writer last year when I was in Ireland and read a book about the Pakenham family and more in particular about Kitty Pakenham (the wife of the Duke of Wellington). Maria was a close friend of Kitty’s and the book gives a lot of information on her life and work as well. I then read Helen, a book that to me completely justifies the definition of Maria Edgeworth as “the Irish Jane Austen”. Castle Rackrent is on my “to read” pile for the near future.

I am currently reading Winifred Gérin’s biography of Emily and in Chapter 15 she speculates that the role of Nellie Dean as narrator in Wuthering Heights may be partly inspired by Maria Edgeworth’s Thady Quirk, the steward in Castle Rackrent (as well as by an influence much closer to home - the Brontës’ servant Tabby).

Alex Reis’s presentation on literary blogs and activities of the blogging community

Sharon writes: Alex gave a fascinating insight of the world of literary blogging – something of which I was only dimly aware, so I was delighted to learn more about this subject. Alex’s colourful presentation and anecdotes about her experiences in the literary blogging world opened a whole new dimension of reading with the opportunity to exchange views with a worldwide community of like-minded readers. With blogs for every literary taste I am looking forward to visiting the many sites recommended by Alex.

Marina writes: The topic that was completely new to me was readers’ blogging. It is fascinating to see how booklovers all over the world can be so passionate about reading books that they create blogs, go into any sort of challenge, set specific reading goals together with other booklovers, make reviews of what they read etc. Personally I like to keep my freedom to read a book when I want without goals or challenges limiting my choice at that moment and I see reading more or less as a solitary and personal business, although I like to exchange views with other readers on books that I have read. I can understand, though, that some people want to share their views and passion with others via internet and blogging.

Dave writes: Are these blogs an art form in themselves? Art in the form of books, letters and paintings survive for centuries for following generations to enjoy. What will happen to blogs as technology evolves, is replaced or disappears? The same question applies to emails which have replaced the written letter.

Myriam Campinaire’s presentation on Gothic elements in Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights

Sharon writes: Myriam outlined the main themes of the genre and then explained how these themes were used in these two novels. Both stories share similar themes of the supernatural, horror, terror, madness, cruelty to children and animals, hateful families, disappointment and death, set in a large creepy house owned by a degenerate master, and a surrounded by inhospitable landscapes and stormy weather. In her historical review Mryiam told us of the influence of the French revolution: people were fearful of rapid change and became nostalgic for the remote past, as evidenced by the revival in Gothic architecture at that time. We look forward to hearing more on this in the future.

Marina writes: Myriam’s topic was obvious in one sense in that you know what a Gothic novel is about, but I think the way she presented and tackled the topic was very interesting. She made a good overview of the criteria and elements that are so typical for a “Gothic” novel (darkness and the night, bad weather, supernatural, ruined buildings, death, revenge, etc) and using these elements she tried to prove in what way Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights met the criteria for a “Gothic” novel. This certainly needs a sequel! Myriam has more to say on the subject. It could even be expanded to the Brontë poetry because in many of the Brontë poems you will also find these “Gothic elements”.

A quotation from Winifred Gérin’s Emily Brontë is again interesting here: “If, as may be argued, without the Gothic novel the figure of such a demon-lover as Heathcliff could never have been conceived, it may also be claimed that it took an Emily Brontë to transform the remote Byronic type into a tough northcountryman. In the final analysis of Emily’s achievement in Wuthering Heights, it is perhaps the quality of nearness that she brought to the world of the Gothic novel that is her major contribution to the genre. Mary Shelley situated her demoniacs in Italy as did Mrs Radcliffe before her) and it was of the essence of Gothic characters to be exotic; Emily Brontë brought them home.”

Jones Hayden’s presentation on the influence of her stay in Brussels on Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre

Marina writes: Jones’s topic was not so obvious. It is clear that The Professor and Villette are full of Brussels experience but to try and find the Brussels experience also in Jane Eyre (which is to me a very typical English novel) is a very brave step. But he succeeded and proved his point in a very convincing way. Here it might be interesting to do the same exercise on Shirley (perhaps another suggestion for a topic?).

Sharon and Helen write: Jones found many interesting parallels. There is some of M. Heger in Rochester and Charlotte’s emotional experience in Brussels shows in Jane Eyre, for example Jane’s moral conflict when she leaves Thornfield. It was suggested that mad Bertha in the attic might have been the fate Charlotte wished for Mme Heger!

Jones found further parallels between the Charlotte/Heger and Jane/Rochester relationships, wondering how much of Heger’s conversational style with pupils is reflected in Mr Rochester’s chats with Jane. Jane calls Rochester her “master”, just as Heger was Charlotte's teacher. But when she returned to Brussels in the second year it was as a teacher, and she gave Heger English lessons. Similarly, in the novel we see Jane and Rochester’s relationship become one of equality.

Sharon Rowles, Marina Saegerman, Helen MacEwan

In the photos: Monica Wallace, Alex Reis, Myriam Campinaire and Jones Hayden

Wuthering Heights at International Film Festival Rotterdam

On 29 January 2012 at the International Film Festival in Rotterdam I saw the first screening in the Netherlands of the newest film-version of Wuthering Heights. I found it impressive. It is real and rough. The director and screenwriter Andrea Arnold made the right choices. Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange are farms, not mansions. And Heathcliff, Cathy, Hindley and all are played by amateurs/non-actors. The film is made from Heathcliff’s point of view, because the director asked herself why he would do the bad things he does. He becomes as bad as the weather: it rains or storms all the time, there’s mud everywhere: earth has a leading role. And never music, except when Cathy is singing. And never a sunny day. But the director also makes very subtle scenes, like the one when Cathy goes mad and pulls the feathers from her pillow: you only see the feathers inside the house from outside through a window. This way of using windows to tell certain scenes made me think that Andrea Arnold knows Emily’s writing very well. And it makes me wonder what people who did not read the book (half the audience) make of these kind of scenes.

The director was interviewed before the screening and she told the audience that she read the book in girlhood and that it made a profound impression on her, like on many readers. But she also thinks that she and all the directors before her are mad to try to make a movie out of Wuthering Heights. It’s a stupid thing to do, not a sensible decision. Nobody can master this book! Leave it alone!

Well fortunately she didn’t and though I can never forgive her (nor the other directors) for not telling the story of the second generation, I still think you should see this film.

And I like this director not only for her film but for the best advice she gave her audience in Rotterdam: Read the book!

Marcia Zaaijer

Jane Eyre on the Brussels Stage, 1855.

The film Jane Eyre is currently being shown at all the major cinemas in Brussels, and is receiving enthusiastic reviews in the Belgian press (e.g. Le Soir, 11 January 2012). Perhaps it is an opportune moment to point out that Jane Eyre had its first representation in Brussels as far back as 1855, the year of Charlotte's Brontë's death. On 29 November 1855, the drama Jane Eyre was premiered at the Théâtre du Vaudeville, on the Rue de l'Evêque, 23 (near the present day Place De Brouckère). It was a play in five acts, co-written by the Paris-born Alphonse Royer (1803-1875) and the young Brussels writer Victor Lefèvre (1822-1904).

Dramas inspired by Jane Eyre had already been performed before this date, notably in England and in Vienna, where in 1853 a version written by Charlotte Birch-Pfeiffer entitled Die Weise von Lowood (The Orphan of Lowood) was first performed. However, the Royer/Lefèvre production was the first version of any Brontë work to reach the Brussels stage. The text of their work was published in Brussels by Parys in 1855, but it has proved impossible to find a copy in Belgium. Apparently there are copies held at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, and Utrecht University Library, which we hope to check out in the near future.

As with the 2011 film directed by Cary Fukunaga, the 1855 theatreproduction received very positive reviews in the contemporary press. The anonymous theatre critic writing in Méphistophélès (02 December 1855) finds but a few "petits défauts" in the piece, and praises the elegant and flowing quality of the dialogue. He is especially pleased by the performance of the two main actors, Mademoiselle Magnan playing Jane, and Monsieur Quélus as Rochester, declaring " ils ont triomphé sur toute la ligne".

Meanwhile Eugène Van Bemmel in the Revue Trimestrielle ( Volume 9, 1856) states that it is a long time since he has witnessed the public so enthralled by a drama. Interestingly, he observes that there is no need to explain the subject matter of the play, "which is known to most of our readers ". It's not certain of course, to what extent Van Bemmel's readers knew that the author of Jane Eyrehad lived in their city, often feeling lonely and unhappy, a mere twelve years or so before.

The drama was so successful that in December 1855 it moved to the larger Théâtre des Galeries St.Hubert, for a further series of performances. This theatre, built in the 1840's, had a capacity of about 850 places, and has survived to the present day. It is located but a few hundred metres away from where the Heger-Parent pensionnat once stood. Heger and his wife were very fond of theatre, and who knows, perhaps they may have attended the show based on the work of their ex-pupil. What an experience this would have been for Constantin, to behold on stage the character of Rochester, in part modelled on himselfl!

Despite the acclaim it received in 1855, Royer and Lefèvre's Jane Eyre doesn't seem to have been presented again on the Brussels stage. If the original text of the work could be located, perhaps a new production could be envisaged some time.

The Brussels production in 1855, though little known about, had at least one major influence on the history of world literature. At the same time as the play was being performed in Brussels, the legendary French author Alexandre Dumas (1802-1870) was putting the final touches to his own drama based on Charlotte's novel. However, when Dumas got news that Jane Eyre was already being played on the Brussels stage, he promptly abandoned his own version. The text of Dumas' work went missing soon after, and has never been recovered. Unless it turns up some day, we're unlikely to ever know how the great Dumas chose to interpret Charlotte Brontë's novel.

Brian Bracken.